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Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed (boring/bored etc.)
Learn the difference between adjectives ending in -ing and -ed, such as 'boring' vs 'bored' or 'interesting' vs 'interested.' This lesson explains how -ing adjectives describe the nature of a thing or person, while -ed adjectives describe how someone feels. Perfect for ESL students and anyone looking to improve their understanding of English grammar.
What Are Relative Pronouns?
Relative clauses add information about nouns. They usually begin with who, whom, which, or that.
noun + relative clause (who/whom/which/that) to define or add extra information
"Jane has been doing the same job for a very long time. Every day she does exactly the same thing again and again. She doesn't enjoy her job any more and would like to do something diff erent."
Relative clauses are essential for adding information about nouns. Decide clause type first (defining/non-defining), then choose the pronoun.
A defining relative clause gives essential meaning. Without it, the noun is unclear.
"We went to a beach (which/that) Ali had recommended to us."
If pronoun = subject, keep it: "I know a man who/that ran in the marathon."
If pronoun = object, omission is often possible: "Decorating is a job (that) I hate."
Non-defining clauses add extra, non-essential information. They are set off by commas.
Keep the pronoun in non-defining clauses.
"Professor Johnson, who(m) I have long admired, is visiting next week."
"The Master's course, which I took in 2001, is no longer taught."
Relative clauses add information about nouns, and usually begin with who, whom, which, or that.
Defining relative clauses give essential meaning. Without them, the noun may be unclear.
Defining example: We went to a beach (which/that) Ali had recommended to us.
If the relative pronoun is object in a defining clause, it can often be omitted.
If the relative pronoun is subject in a defining clause, do not omit it.
For things in defining clauses: subject -> which/that; object -> which/that/zero.
For people in defining clauses: subject -> who/that; object -> who/that/zero/whom (formal).
'Whom' is very formal and rare in speech, but still appears in formal writing.
In non-defining clauses (with commas), keep the pronoun; for things prefer 'which'.
After words like all, little, much, none, and superlatives, 'that' is often preferred.
My teacher, that lives in Delhi, is very kind.
My teacher, who lives in Delhi, is very kind.
Use who/which (not that) in non-defining clauses with commas.
The book who I bought is expensive.
The book that/which I bought is expensive.
Use who for people; use that/which for things.
The woman I met her yesterday is a doctor.
The woman (who/that) I met yesterday is a doctor.
Do not repeat the object pronoun inside the relative clause.
Identify whether your clause is defining or non-defining before choosing a pronoun.
Use commas only for non-defining clauses.
Omit the pronoun only when it is object in a defining clause.
Use who for people and which/that for things in defining contexts.
Prefer clear, short clauses over long nested clauses in speaking.
Professional communication
Use precise relative clauses in reports, proposals, and presentations to avoid ambiguity.
Choose defining clauses for essential meaning and non-defining clauses for extra detail.
Pause lightly around comma clauses to keep your meaning clear.
Daily conversation
Describe people and things naturally: 'the friend who helped me', 'the app that I use'.
In defining clauses, omit the pronoun only when it is object, not subject.
Link relative pronouns smoothly: who-I, that-I, which-we.
Independent practice
Write 3 pairs: one defining clause, one non-defining clause, and one with pronoun omission.
Check noun type (person/thing), clause type (defining/non-defining), then role (subject/object).
Read each pair aloud and listen for punctuation pauses and flow.
Practice tip: read the examples aloud, then write three sentences using the same structure.
Now Put It Into Practice — Out Loud
Reading grammar is step one. Saying it fluently is step two. Cambridge Veritas AI analyses your speaking in real time — pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and vocabulary.
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